Roles of Meditation on Alleviation of Oxidative Stress
and Improvement of Antioxidant System
Chitrawina Mahagita PhD*
* Department of Physiology, Phramongkutklao College of Medicine, Bangkok, Thailand
According to MEDLINE/Pubmed search to December 2009, the modulation effects of meditation on oxidative stress have been increasingly investigated for acute, short and long term effects. Both invasive and noninvasive measurements havebeen utilized.
Long term transcendental and Zen meditators have been showed to diminish oxidative stress seen by a reduction of lipid peroxidation and biophoton emission. Glutathione level and activity of antioxidant enzymes (catalase,superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase and glutathione reductase) have been facilitated in Yoga and Sudarshan Kriya practitioners.
One year of Tai Chi training has been reported to promote superoxide dismutase activity and lessen lipid
peroxidation. Performing diaphragmatic breathing after exhaustive exercise has attenuated oxidative stress faster than control.
These data suggest possible roles of meditation and meditation-based techniques on the decrease of oxidative stress
which may assist to prevent and/or alleviate deterioration of related diseases. However, further research needs to elucidate
the cellular and molecular mechanisms which remain challenge to accomplish.
Keywords: Meditation, Mind-body intervention, Oxidative stress, Antioxidant, Free radicals
Special Article
J Med Assoc Thai 2010; 93 (Suppl. 6): S242-S254
Full text. e-Journal: http://www.mat.or.th/journal
Correspondence to:
Mahagita C, Department of Physiology, Phramongkutklao
College of Medicine, Bangkok 10400, Thailand.
Phone & Fax: 0-2354-7762
E-mail: chitrawina@ yahoo.com, chitrawina@gmail.com
In the era of competition and complexity,
humans unavoidably have to face both mental and
physical stresses. Although biomedical research has
been improved in parallel with technology, it seems not
to undergo in holistic approach. Various diseases also
have been developed and are still incurable.
Consequently, complementary and alternative
medicines have been sought for improving therapy and
quality of life. At present, meditation is of growing
interest in both eastern and western countries(1-3).
Numerous clinical studies have demonstrated its
therapeutic effects in many diseases(4-7). Nevertheless,
its underlying mechanism still needs to be illuminated.
One hypothesis has been considered the attenuation
of oxidative stress which has been showed to involve
in pathogenesis of many fatal diseases(8,9). At the
moment, scientific research is in progress studying
favorable effects of meditation associated with the
oxidative stress.
This is the first review about the roles of
meditation and meditation-based techniques on
oxidative status. Initially, it briefly described an
overview of meditation and biomarkers of oxidative
stress. Then the last chapter focused on publications
corresponding to oxidative status affected by
meditation and meditation-based techniques. A
literature search was conducted using MEDLINE/
Pubmed and the references of received articles. The
search included articles published in English up to
December 2009, using MeSH tool. Searched terms
included, meditation, mind body therapy, oxidative
stress, free radicals, reactive species, oxidants and
antioxidants in various combinations.
Meditation and its classification in biomedical
research
Meditation, an ancient spiritual practice, is a
mind-body technique that helps people in balancing
mental, physical as well as emotional prospects which
can be practiced by people of any religion or any
culture. In terms of history, no one really can specify
when meditation originated but it is firstly described in
texts about several thousand years B.C(10). In general,
there are two main types of meditation; concentration
meditation and mindfulness meditation. The first one
involves direct attention on one focus in order to
develop deep state of concentration. The latter one is
J Med Assoc Thai Vol. 93 Suppl. 6 2010 S243
not to focus but rather to observe mind or body
perception moment to moment with non-judgment
awareness. Finally, the wisdom to comprehend the true
nature; impermanence (Anicca), suffering (Dukkha) and
non-selfhood (Anatta), will be developed(11). Most of
meditation techniques are employed in Asian countries
and took several thousand years to spread to West.
Nowadays, meditation is becoming popular in western
countries. Articles of Time magazine have revealed
meditation as a smart practice in daily life for American
people(12) and in military troops(13). Once Western
physicians have tried, they have started to understand
the role of mind on health and disease. Meditation
health care center has been constructed in school of
medicine such as in University of Massachusetts
Medical School (The Center for Mindfulness in
Medicine), United States of America. Then, this kind of
center has been created in other countries, leading into
widespread medical investigations.
In the present biomedical researches, Ospina
et al(14) broadly divided meditation into five categories;
mantra meditation, mindfulness meditation, yoga, Tai
Chi and Qigong. First, mantra meditation is composed
of transcendental meditation (TM), relaxation response
and clinically standardized meditation. They share
common characteristics to develop deep concentration
by repeating silently or aloud the mantra (a word or
phrase). This is so-called concentration meditation of
Buddhist meditation. Second, mindfulness meditation
is composed of vipassana meditation, Zen meditation,
mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) and
mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT). The
hallmark of this category is to cultivate mindfulness
and wisdom of oneself as previously described. Third,
yoga is an ancient Indian system that comprises basic
forms of postural movement, meditation, breathing
technique and relaxation(15). Another method named
Sudarshan Kriya (SK) is also included in yoga,
emphasizing on breathing pattern. Fourth, Tai Chi is
the Chinese art for individual health and well being. It
involves gentle body movement in continuous
sequence, breathing patterns and mental
concentration(16,17). Fifth, Qigong is quite similar to Tai
Chi in terms of body movement but relates to breathing
attention with meditation basis. However, Qigong
emphasizes the concept of Qi flow (flow of internal
vital energy) as well(14,18). Additionally, diaphragmatic
breathing (DB) exercise has been categorized in part of
mediation too. The technique is to concentrate on
inhalation and exhalation. Deep breathing is inhaled
through nose into lung by the diaphragm (using
abdominal muscles), not by the rib cage expansion.
Exhalation is pursed to the lip. This method is generally
incorporated in yoga and many types of meditation.
The last four methods contribute similar concept of
body movement with clear and calm state of meditation.
Hence, they could be included into meditation-based
technique/movement or meditative movement. To
summarize, meditation in area of biomedical study
actually can be divided into three broad categories;
concentration meditation, mindfulness meditation and
meditation-based techniques.
The beneficial effects of meditation and
meditative movement on physical body have been
revealed. In healthy people, physiological changes are
concerned with reduction of heart rate, blood pressure,
respiratory rate(19-21), metabolic rate(22,23) and stress
hormones(24-26). As well, meditation enhances
parasympathetic nervous system(27), cerebral blood
flow(28), cerebral function of attention areas(29,30), and
release of dopamine and serotonin(31,32). Additionally,
clinical studies have illustrated its therapeutic effects
in many pathological diseases when used in
combination with conventional treatment such as
cancer(4,33,34), cardiovascular diseases(35-37), diabetes
mellitus(5,38), hypertension(6,39) and chronic pain(40).
Nonetheless, cellular and molecular mechanisms still
have to be elucidated.
Biomarkers of oxidative stress, oxidants and
antioxidant system
Oxidative stress refers to a serious imbalance
between oxidant production and antioxidant
defenses(41) for which the generation of oxidizing
substances is beyond the detoxifying capacity(42),
resulting in oxidative damage of target molecules such
as DNA, protein and lipid structures(43) (Fig. 1). It has
been reported to be involved in the pathogenesis of
many diseases, e.g, cancer, cardiovascular disease,
diabetes mellitus, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s
disease(8,9). This part concerns only bioindicators of
oxidants and antioxidants. The detailed description of
biochemistry is well beyond the scope of this review.
Oxidant measurement as a biomarker of oxidative
status
Byproducts of oxidation reaction are regularly
measured as indicators of oxidative stress since free
radicals themselves are unstable. Reactive species (RS)
or oxidants or free radicals are defined as molecules
comprising unpaired electron (s) in atomic or molecular
orbitals(44). The common groups of RS are reactive
S244 J Med Assoc Thai Vol. 93 Suppl. 6 2010
oxygen species or ROS (e.g, superoxide radicals,
hydroxyl radicals and hydrogen peroxide), and reactive
nitrogen species or RNS (e.g, nitric oxide radicals,
nitrogen dioxide radicals and nitrous acid). In normal
circumstances, free radicals are endogenously
generated in the body from mitochondrial electron
transport, immune response, detoxification and protein
folding(45). Also, exposure to pollutants, chemicals,
radiation, and physical and mental stresses accelerates
production of RS(46). To reach ground state, ROS and
RNS rapidly donate unpaired electrons to other
biological molecules as nucleic acids, lipids and
proteins. Consequently, it is difficult to directly
quantify free radicals because of their high reactivity
and short half-life. Instead, byproducts formed during
oxidation are evaluated because they are more stable.
ROS, especially hydroxyl radicals, can react with all
components of DNA. The common indicators of DNA
oxidation are 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine and the DNA
damage(47). Lipids are also sensitive cellular targets of
free radicals. Investigation of lipid peroxidation is
the oldest determination of oxidative stress.
Malondialdehyde (MDA), F2-isoprostanes and 4-
hydroxy-2-nonenal (4-HNE) are extensively detected
as parameters of lipid peroxidation(44). Reaction of MDA
and thiobarbituric acid generates thiobarbituric acid
reactive substances (TBARS) which is also applied
for MDA evaluation. However, analysis by
Fig. 1 Oxidative stress, biomarkers (underline) and pathogenesis involvement. Generation of reactive species (RS) is
derived from both endogenous and exogenous sources. However, antioxidant system also has been evolved to
balance oxidants. Overproduction of RS causes oxidative damage of DNA, lipid and protein structures indicated by
byproducts. This damage has been reported to involve in pathogenesis of many diseases. CAT, catalase; GPX,
glutathione peroxidase; GR, glutathione reductase; GSH, reduced glutathione; GSSG, oxidized glutathione; SOD,
superoxide dismutase; UPE, ultraweak photon emission
J Med Assoc Thai Vol. 93 Suppl. 6 2010 S245
chromatography is increasingly analyzed and more
reliable(48). Protein oxidation is another process of
oxidative damage. Basically, free radicals oxidize amino
acids, then, create carbonyls and amino acid
modification as biomarkers of protein oxidation(42). In
terms of RNS, nitric oxide (NO) is a major RNS that has
been considered as important vasodilator and
neutralizer of superoxide radical. However, NO also
mediates inflammation and cytotoxic substances.
Therefore, RS has been clarified both useful and harmful
effects. Overproduction of RS finally originates the
destruction of biomolecules, so-called oxidative
damage. For this reasons, human body needs the other
mechanism to antagonize RS productions, known as
the antioxidant system (Fig. 1).
Antioxidant measurement as a biomarker of
oxidative status
The antioxidant system is composed of
antioxidant enzymes as well as endogenous
antioxidants (non-enzyme) and antioxidative enzymes.
Antioxidant or free radical scavengers are signified as
any substance that delays, prevents or removes
oxidative damage to a target molecule(41). For
endogenous antioxidants, the most importance is
glutathione or reduced glutathione (GSH)(49). Total
glutathione includes both GSH and oxidized glutathione
(GSSG). About ninety eight percent of total glutathione
is GSH (g-glutamyl-cysteinylglycine). It is responsible
for many crucial biological processes, especially
detoxification by either conjugation or acting as a
powerful reducing agent. In terms of conjugation, GSH
combines with electrophiles into glutathione conjugate
for further elimination. This reaction is catalyzed by
glutathione S-transferase (GST)(50). Furthermore, GSH
detoxifies hydrogen peroxide and lipid peroxides by
catalytic action of glutathione peroxidase (GPX), and
form GSSG (so-called oxidized glutathione).
Subsequently, reactivity of those RS is abolished or
lessened. After that, GSSG is converted back to GSH
by glutathione reductase (GR) to maintain redox
homeostasis(49). Hence, these enzymes are determined
as biomarkers of antioxidant enzymes. GSH and GSSG
levels also are validated as biomarkers of antioxidant
and oxidative stress, respectively (Fig. 1). As well, GSH/
GSSG ratio is generally calculated to determine oxidative
status However, quantification of both GSH and GSSG
has to be concerned for artifacts(51). Additionally,
carotenoid, vitamin E and vitamin C are also considered
free radical scavengers. Nonetheless, they must be in
active forms, and the major source is exogenous from
diet. In addition to GST, GPX and GR, the other essential
antioxidant enzymes include superoxide dismutase
(SOD) and catalase (CAT) (45). SOD catalyzes
conversion of superoxide radical to hydrogen peroxide
(lesser reactivity) while CAT converts hydrogen
peroxide into non-oxidant molecules.
Non-invasive measurement of oxidative stress
Although many biomarkers are provided to
measure oxidative status, most of them require the
destruction of cell or tissues to derive target specimens.
Measurement of ultraweak photon emission (UPE) has
been developed to quantify oxidative stress in a noninvasive
way(52,53). Under normal conditions, the human
body spontaneously emits biophoton or ultraweak light
but cannot be seen by the naked eye or optical
detectors. UPE is directly correlated with the
consumption of molecular oxygen. Each emitted
spectrum is referred to a different oxygen-dependent
reaction, e.g, lipid and protein peroxidation(53,54). As a
result, measurement of UPE has been implicated in ROS
production and oxidative stress(55).
To sum up, the human body regularly initiates
free radicals from both endogenous and exogenous
sources. Although RS is involved in many physiological
phenomena, it also can damage target biomolecules.
Thus, the human body has evolved an antioxidant
system to balance the reactivity of free radicals.
Oxidative status can be estimated via both invasive
and non-invasive techniques. Oxidative stress occurs
when oxidant production is over the capability of
antioxidant mechanisms. It is associated with the
pathogenesis of many fatal diseases. Therefore, if any
intervention can endogenously reduce oxidative
damage or facilitate antioxidant mechanisms, that
method would be very worthwhile.
Modulation effects of meditation and meditation-based
techniques on oxidative stress
In the past several decades, the studies of
meditation and meditation-based techniques have been
increasingly interested. The content of this article was
arranged following the duration of intervention: acute,
short term and long term effects of meditation.
Acute effects of meditation and meditation-based
techniques on oxidative status
According to moment published data, Wijk
and coworkers(56) presented the shortest time (ten
minutes) of meditation affecting oxidative stress (Table
1). They were the first group to measure oxidative status
S246 J Med Assoc Thai Vol. 93 Suppl. 6 2010
Study Intervention group/(n) Comparison Result/(evidence suggestion)
Wijk et al, ZM (1) Pre/during/post-meditation Decreased hand UPE for 46 % after 10 min meditating
(2005)(56) Phi-damped breathing (2) Pre/during/post-meditation NSD
TM (1) Pre/during/post-meditation NSD
TM + breathing (1) Pre/during/post-meditation Decreased forehead and hand UPE for 5 % after 10
(Subjects had experience at (each period was 10 min) min meditating and continued reduction along 10
least 15 years). min of post-meditation
(Reduction of oxidative stress by ZM and TM+breathing)
Sharma et al SK (10) 45 min/0 min of SK NSD
(2003)(57) (Subjects carried out SK 65 min/0 min of SK Significantly increased SOD activity
practice for 5 months). (Improvement of antioxidant system)
Kim et al ZM (20) 70 min/0 min of Zen NSD (serum MDA and NO)
(2005)(58) (Subjects had experience at meditation
least 4 years).
Martarelli et al DB (8): DB for 1 hour DB/controls at 0 min, 90 At 8 and 24 hours, DB group significantly increased
(2009)(59) after exercise-induced min, 8 hours and 24 biological antioxidant potential and decreased
oxidative stress hours after exercise d-reactive oxygen metabolites more than controls.
Controls (8): Sitting quietly (Alleviation of oxidative stress by DB)
for 1 hour after exercise
DB, diaphragmatic breathing; min, minute; NO, nitric oxide; MDA, malondialdehyde; NSD, no significant difference, SK, Sudarshan Kriya; SOD, superoxide
dismutase; TM, transcendental meditation; UPE, ultraweak photon emission; ZM, Zen meditation
Table 1. Acute effect of meditation and meditation-based techniques on oxidative status
J Med Assoc Thai Vol. 93 Suppl. 6 2010 S247
in meditators by UPE. Five subjects were long term
practitioners with different meditation types. The
emission of biophoton was traced from hand and/or
head for three periods, ten minutes each; before, during
and after meditation. After ten minutes of Zen
meditation, forehead UPE was quite the same whereas
hand UPE declined up to 46%. The decrease also
continued along ten minutes of post-meditation period.
In contrast, two subjects of breathing technique and
one TM practitioner had no obvious alteration of UPE.
One modified TM (TM with breathing combination)
showed a slight reduction of hand and forehead UPE
(about 5%) after 10 minutes of meditation period (Table
1). Thus, data suggested that meditation could
influence human biophoton emission. However, it
should be further clarified in larger numbers. In 2003,
Sharma et al(57) examined acute effects of SK, yoga
branch, on antioxidant system. Firstly, subjects had
been trained SK for 5 months (n = 10). Then, total
glutathione, CAT and SOD were analyzed at 45 and 65
minutes of SK performance, and compared with 0
minute. None of the parameters indicated significant
alteration at 45 minutes. After 65 minutes, total
glutathione seemed to elevate but was not statistically
significant, whereas, SOD activity exhibited a significant
increase. Then, the researchers proposed that SK could
produce better status of antioxidants. However, the
results should be confirmed in a bigger sample size. In
addition, Kim and coworkers studied acute effects of
Zen meditation in long term practitioners (over 4 years
of experience), at 70 minutes against a 0 minute
baseline(58). Nevertheless, no significant alteration was
found (by assessing lipid peroxidation and NO) as
shown in Table 1. This data was controversy with Wijk
et al, (2005). Nevertheless, other oxidative parameters
should be confirmed too. In addition to direct influence
on oxidative status, exhaustive exercise was also
employed to induce oxidative stress. DB, a breathing
part of many meditation forms, was declared to
encourage the antioxidant system and ease oxidative
stress induced by exhaustive exercise(59). After
exercising, 8 DB practitioners performed DB for one
hour while eight control subjects sat in quiet and
comparable environments. At 8 and 24 hours after
exercise, DB group demonstrated decline of d-reactive
oxygen metabolites and elevation of biological
antioxidant potential. In the meantime, oxidative stress
in control group stayed still along 24 hours after exercise
(Table 1). Thus, lessening of oxidative stress by DB
was assumed.
Short term effects of meditation and meditation-based
techniques on oxidative status
Yadav and coworkers(60) determined lipid
peroxidation of 104 healthy subjects who entered a
yoga-based lifestyle modification program for nine days.
The program included yoga with nutritional and stress
management. At day ten, serum TBARS was
significantly decreased when compared with the control
before starting the course (Table 2). Sample size and
individual baseline comparing were strength of this
study. Nevertheless, other oxidative stress markers
should be confirmed aside from serum TBARS. Also,
alleviation of oxidative stress might have occurred from
other factors as nutritional and stress management.
The rest of publications investigated short term effects
of meditation in periods of months. Sharma et al(57)
clarified that five months of SK practice (n = 10)
significantly raised total glutathione, CAT and SOD,
compared with the control group (n = 14). The baseline
levels of CAT and SOD were initially verified to be
comparable in both groups. All subjects were in similar
living conditions at a Police Training College which
was benefit of this study but the sample size should be
enlarged. Afterward, Sinha et al(61) investigated six
months of yoga practice in 30 Indian Navies in similar
habits and environments. Compared to individual
baseline, the six-month yoga practitioners significantly
elevated blood GSH, GSH/GSSG ratio and total
antioxidant status as shown in Table 2. In contrast,
control group (routine training for 6 months) declined
total antioxidant status and increased GR activity. This
could be explained by induction of oxidative stress by
routine physical training. Hence, yoga was suggested
to ease oxidative stress and improve antioxidant system.
Tai Chi, the Chinese martial art exercise, was also
inspected. Recently, Goon and colleagues explored
oxidative stress profiles after Tai Chi training for 0, 6
and 12 months(62). Interestingly, at six months, DNA
damage was elevated and GPX activity increased (n =
25). The outcomes were considered as a mild level of
exercise-induced oxidative stress with compensation
of GPX activity. Nevertheless, at 12 months, Tai Chi
participants (n = 15) presented a significant decrease
of plasma MDA and increase of SOD activity (Table 2).
In this data, various parameters were determined which
advantaged correct interpretation.
Long term effects of meditation and meditative-based
techniques on oxidative status
Studies of the long term effects of meditation
on oxidative status have been conducted in meditators
S248 J Med Assoc Thai Vol. 93 Suppl. 6 2010
Study Intervention group/(n) Comparison Result/(evidence suggestion)
Yadav et al Yoga (104) 9 days/own baseline Significantly decreased serum TBARS
(2005)(60) (Subjects entered 9 days-yoga (Reduction of oxidative stress)
Program).
Sharma et al SK (10): SK training for 5-month SK/controls at 5 months Significantly increased total glutathione
(2003)(57) Controls (14): Routine training, no SK and activity of SOD and CAT in SK
(Subjects were comparable from Police (Improvement of antioxidant system)
Training College and age-matched).
Sinha et al Yoga (30): Routine training with SK/own baseline Significantly increased GSH, GSH/GSSG
(2007)(61) yoga practice for 6 months at 6 months ratio and total antioxidant status
Controls (21): Routine training Controls/own baseline Significantly decreased total antioxidant
without Yoga at 6 months status and increased GR activity
(Both groups were male from Indian (Stimulation of antioxidant system and alleviation of stress
Navies and age-matched). training by yoga)
Goon et al Tai Chi (25) 6 months/own baseline Significantly increased DNA damage and
(2009)(62) (Sedentary healthy volunteers (n =25) GPX activity (induction of oxidative stress)
with age over 45 years). 12 months/own baseline Significantly decreased plasma MDA and
(n =15) increased SOD activity (oxidative stress
reduction and antioxidant improvement)
CAT, catalase; DNA, deoxyribonucleic acid; GPX, glutathione peroxidase; GR, glutathione reductase; GSH, reduced glutathione, GSSG, oxidized glutathione;
MDA, malondialdehyde; SK, Sudarshan Kriya; SOD, superoxide dismutase; TBARS, thiobarbituric acid reactive substance
Table 2. Short term effect of meditation and meditation-based techniques on oxidative status
J Med Assoc Thai Vol. 93 Suppl. 6 2010 S249
with experience of more than one year (Table 3). In
2008, Sharma and coworkers(63) compared antioxidant
systems of long term practitioners (one hour a day, at
least one year) of SK with matched control (n = 42). SK
practitioners had higher levels of glutathione, GPX and
SOD activities than controls, implying better capacities
to neutralize oxidants in SK group. Furthermore, Sharma
et al firstly reported a profile of gene expression in long
term practice of meditative-based technique. Expression
of the GST gene in SK was significantly amplified,
correlating with elevation of GSH levels. Therefore, SK
practice might help to improve the capability of
detoxification. Expression of GPX, CAT and SOD genes
of SK tended to elevate as well, but insignificantly.
Moreover, Kim et al(58) verified long term effect of Zen
meditation (at least 4-year experience) on oxidative
stress. Subjects of Zen and control group were healthy
and comparable (20 each). Zen practitioners (two to
three days per week at least four years) demonstrated a
significant diminution of serum MDA and elevation of
serum NO over the control group. Thus, they proposed
alleviation of oxidative stress by Zen meditation. In
addition to Zen meditation, TM was extensively
investigated in biomedical research of meditation (Table
3). Schneider et al(64) evaluated lipid peroxides in 20
long term TM practitioners (more than 16.5 years of
experience), and in 20 sedentary controls who did not
perform any stress management. Plasma TBARS of the
meditation group was significantly lesser than the
control. Both groups were comparable in age, gender
and education. Furthermore, Wijk and colleagues
examined the anatomical characterization of UPE in ten
long term TM practitioners, who meditated 20 minutes,
twice a day for more than ten years (Table 3)(65). Both
study and control participants had verified UPE in 12
anatomical locations of the anterior torso (stomach,
heart, right and left abdomen), head (forehead, throat,
right and left cheeks) and hand (palms and hands on
both left and right sides). Compared to the control
group, TM practitioners exhibited a significant
decrement of UPE in the area of the stomach, heart,
throat, right cheek, forehead and left dorsal hand. Two
subjects with regular meditation demonstrated the
lowest UPE. Therefore, the authors proposed that
persistent meditation could diminish UPE. In order to
support this hypothesis, the same group characterized
UPE in a bigger sample size of TM practitioners (n =
20). In addition, various techniques of long term
meditation were elucidated(66). Similar to previous
reports, long term TM practitioners demonstrated a
significant diminution of UPE in the locations of the
stomach, heart, throat, right cheek, right and left
abdomen (Table 3). The average overall reduction of
photon emission in TM practitioners was 27% lower
than the control group. In the mean time, 20 long term
practitioners of other meditation techniques (OMT)
were also evaluated for photon emission. OMT included
three Taoists, three Zen meditators, four Christian
meditators (praying and contemplation) and ten yoga
participants. Compared to control subjects, UPE of
OMT was significantly decreased at the throat area
with an average lessening of 17%. Hence, this study
supported the hypothesis that long term practice of
meditation lowers UPE, implying ROS dwelling in a living
system. Hence, these results were in concert with
modulation effects of meditation on oxidative stress
measured by invasive methods.
Miscellaneous findings
In addition to the above articles, some
miscellaneous findings were incorporated in this
paragraph. Bhattacharya and colleagues(67) reported
that yogic breathing technique significantly lessened
free radicals and promoted SOD levels (n = 30) when
compared to control subjects. However, they did not
mention how long practitioners were trained. As well,
the full text was unattainable. One article from China
mentioned that Qigong could facilitate antioxidant
activity but did not reveal the markers used to determine
this(68). Method and duration of experiment were not
clearly explained as well (only the abstract was
provided). In addition to studying healthy people,
Mahapure and coworkers investigated yoga effects
on oxidative status in diabetic patients(69). Compared
with control diabetics (anti-diabetic therapy alone),
diabetics who also performed yoga had significantly
higher levels of SOD after training, suggesting
therapeutic assistance in diabetic patients. Additionally,
one group of American scientists studied effects of
meditation in cell culture. Oxidative stress, rate of cell
death and proliferation were assessed before and after
biofield therapy (supraphysical energy delivered from
meditative masters who had long experience in healing
patients). Nonetheless, most investigations had no
significant alteration in cell cultures(70-72). It might be
possible that therapeutic effects require coordination
of different systems in vivo.
Conclusion and future direction
According to MEDLINE/Pubmed data up to
December 2009, studies of meditation and meditationbased
techniques on oxidative stress have been
S250 J Med Assoc Thai Vol. 93 Suppl. 6 2010
Study Intervention group/(n) Comparison Result/(evidence suggestion)
Sharma et al SK (42): Long term practice, at least 1 year, SK/controls Significantly increased level of total
(2008)(63) 1 hour/day glutathione, and activity of GPX and SOD
Controls (42): Not performed any exercise and Significantly elevated GST gene expression
stress management. (Improvement of antioxidant system)
(Both groups were age, gender, BMI and
socioeconomic-matched).
Kim et al ZM (20): Long term practice, at least 4 year, ZM/controls Significantly decreased serum MDA and
(2005)(58) 2-3 day/week, 1 hour/day increased NO
Controls (20): Not performed any exercise (Reduction of oxidative stress)
and stress management.
(Both groups were comparable in age, gender,
BMI, education and diet).
Wijk et al TM (10): Long term practice, at least 10 years, TM/controls Significantly decreased UPE on area of
(2006)(65) twice a day, 20 min/time stomach, heart, throat, right cheek,
Controls (10): Without experience using any forehead and left dorsal hand
meditation form. (Reduction of oxidative stress)
(Both groups were age and gender-matched, and
did not intake any supplement).
Wijk et al TM (20): Long term practitioners TM/controls Significantly decreased UPE on area of
(2008)(66) OMT (20): Long term practitioners of Taoist stomach, heart, throat, right cheek, right and
meditation (3), Zen meditation (3), Christian left abdomen (overall reduction was 27%)
meditation (3) and yoga (10) (Improvement of antioxidant system)
Controls (20): Without experience using any OMT/controls Significantly decreased UPE on area of throat
meditation form (overall reduction was 17%)
(Both groups were age, gender and BMI-matched, (Improvement of antioxidant system)
and free of medication).
Schneider et al TM (18): Long term practice, at least 16.5 years TM/controls Significantly decreased plasma TBARS
(1998)(64) Controls (10): Not performed any stress (Reduction of oxidative stress)
management
(Both groups were comparable in age, gender and
education).
BMI; body mass index, GPX, glutathione peroxidase; GST, glutathione S-transferase; MDA, malondialdehyde; NO, nitric oxide; OMT, other meditation types;
Sudarshan Kriya; SOD, superoxide dismutase; TBARS, thiobarbituric acid reactive substances; TM, transcendental meditation; UPE, ultraweak photon emission;
ZM, Zen meditation
Table 3. Long term effect of meditation and meditation-based techniques on oxidative status
J Med Assoc Thai Vol. 93 Suppl. 6 2010 S251
growing in interest. Long term TM and Zen meditation
have been clarified to reduced oxidative stress, indicated
from a decline of MDA level and UPE. Yoga and SK
have been clarified to enhance both levels of
endogenous antioxidants (glutathione) and activity of
antioxidant enzymes; CAT, SOD, GPX and GR. Twelve
months of Tai Chi practice also have been showed to
promote SOD activity and lessen lipid peroxidation.
DB after exhaustive exercise has facilitated attenuation
of exercise-induced oxidative stress faster than the
control. Therefore, the results suggest reduction of
oxidative stress and improvement of the antioxidant
system by meditation in various modalities. However,
future research should signify cellular and molecular
mechanisms. Additionally, inclusion criteria,
comparable subjects, study design, reliability of
measurement and sample size should be put higher
awareness.
References
1. Barnes PM, Bloom B, Nahin RL. Complementary
and alternative medicine use among adults and
children: United States, 2007. Natl Health Stat Report
2008; 1-23.
2. Wolsko PM, Eisenberg DM, Davis RB, Phillips RS.
Use of mind-body medical therapies. J Gen Intern
Med 2004; 19: 43-50.
3. Lindberg DA. Integrative review of research related
to meditation, spirituality, and the elderly.
Geriatr Nurs 2005; 26: 372-7.
4. Biegler KA, Chaoul MA, Cohen L. Cancer, cognitive
impairment, and meditation. Acta Oncol 2009;
48: 18-26.
5. Rosenzweig S, Reibel DK, Greeson JM, Edman JS,
Jasser SA, McMearty KD, et al. Mindfulnessbased
stress reduction is associated with improved
glycemic control in type 2 diabetes mellitus: a pilot
study. Altern Ther Health Med 2007; 13: 36-8.
6. Manikonda JP, Stork S, Togel S, Lobmuller A,
Grunberg I, Bedel S, et al. Contemplative meditation
reduces ambulatory blood pressure and
stress-induced hypertension: a randomized pilot
trial. J Hum Hypertens 2008; 22: 138-40.
7. Ospina MB, Bond K, Karkhaneh M, Buscemi N,
Dryden DM, Barnes V, et al. Clinical trials of meditation
practices in health care: characteristics and
quality. J Altern Complement Med 2008; 14: 1199-
213.
8. Grune T, Berger MM. Markers of oxidative stress
in ICU clinical settings: present and future. Curr
Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2007; 10: 712-7.
9. Valko M, Leibfritz D, Moncol J, Cronin MT, Mazur
M, Telser J. Free radicals and antioxidants in normal
physiological functions and human disease.
Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2007; 39: 44-84.
10. Natural-health-and-healing.com [homepage on the
Internet]. History and types of meditation. 2005
[cited 2010 Jan 5]. Available from: http://
www.natural-health-and-healing.com/history-andtypes-
of-meditation.html
11. Bhikkhu B. Handbook for mankind. Bangkok: Office
of National Buddhism Press; 1956.
12. Cullen LT. How to get smarter, one breath at a time.
Time Inc [homepage on the Internet]. 2006 Jan 10
[cited 2010 Jan 5]. Available from: http://
www.time.com/time/magazine/article/
0,9171,1147167,00.html
13. Rochman B. Samurai mind training for modern
American warriors. Time Inc [homepage on the
Internet]. 2009 Sep 6 [cited 2010 Jan 5]. Available
from: http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/
0,8599,1920753,00.html
14. Ospina MB, Bond K, Karkhaneh M, Tjosvold L,
Vandermeer B, Liang Y, et al. Meditation practices
for health: state of the research. Evid Rep Technol
Assess (Full Rep) 2007; 1-263.
15. Bushell WC. Longevity: potential life span and
health span enhancement through practice of the
basic yoga meditation regimen. Ann N Y Acad Sci
2009; 1172: 20-7.
16. Posadzki P, Jacques S. Tai chi and meditation: A
conceptual (re)synthesis? J Holist Nurs 2009; 27:
103-14.
17. Rogers CE, Larkey LK, Keller C. A review of clinical
trials of tai chi and qigong in older adults. West
J Nurs Res 2009; 31: 245-79.
18. Birdee GS, Wayne PM, Davis RB, Phillips RS, Yeh
GY. T’ai chi and qigong for health: patterns of use
in the United States. J Altern Complement Med
2009; 15: 969-73.
19. Nidich SI, Rainforth MV, Haaga DA, Hagelin J,
Salerno JW, Travis F, et al. A randomized controlled
trial on effects of the Transcendental Meditation
program on blood pressure, psychological distress,
and coping in young adults. Am J Hypertens
2009; 22: 1326-31.
20. Danucalov MA, Simoes RS, Kozasa EH, Leite JR.
Cardiorespiratory and metabolic changes during
yoga sessions: the effects of respiratory exercises
and meditation practices. Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedback
2008; 33: 77-81.
21. Sudsuang R, Chentanez V,
and Improvement of Antioxidant System
Chitrawina Mahagita PhD*
* Department of Physiology, Phramongkutklao College of Medicine, Bangkok, Thailand
According to MEDLINE/Pubmed search to December 2009, the modulation effects of meditation on oxidative stress have been increasingly investigated for acute, short and long term effects. Both invasive and noninvasive measurements havebeen utilized.
Long term transcendental and Zen meditators have been showed to diminish oxidative stress seen by a reduction of lipid peroxidation and biophoton emission. Glutathione level and activity of antioxidant enzymes (catalase,superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase and glutathione reductase) have been facilitated in Yoga and Sudarshan Kriya practitioners.
One year of Tai Chi training has been reported to promote superoxide dismutase activity and lessen lipid
peroxidation. Performing diaphragmatic breathing after exhaustive exercise has attenuated oxidative stress faster than control.
These data suggest possible roles of meditation and meditation-based techniques on the decrease of oxidative stress
which may assist to prevent and/or alleviate deterioration of related diseases. However, further research needs to elucidate
the cellular and molecular mechanisms which remain challenge to accomplish.
Keywords: Meditation, Mind-body intervention, Oxidative stress, Antioxidant, Free radicals
Special Article
J Med Assoc Thai 2010; 93 (Suppl. 6): S242-S254
Full text. e-Journal: http://www.mat.or.th/journal
Correspondence to:
Mahagita C, Department of Physiology, Phramongkutklao
College of Medicine, Bangkok 10400, Thailand.
Phone & Fax: 0-2354-7762
E-mail: chitrawina@ yahoo.com, chitrawina@gmail.com
In the era of competition and complexity,
humans unavoidably have to face both mental and
physical stresses. Although biomedical research has
been improved in parallel with technology, it seems not
to undergo in holistic approach. Various diseases also
have been developed and are still incurable.
Consequently, complementary and alternative
medicines have been sought for improving therapy and
quality of life. At present, meditation is of growing
interest in both eastern and western countries(1-3).
Numerous clinical studies have demonstrated its
therapeutic effects in many diseases(4-7). Nevertheless,
its underlying mechanism still needs to be illuminated.
One hypothesis has been considered the attenuation
of oxidative stress which has been showed to involve
in pathogenesis of many fatal diseases(8,9). At the
moment, scientific research is in progress studying
favorable effects of meditation associated with the
oxidative stress.
This is the first review about the roles of
meditation and meditation-based techniques on
oxidative status. Initially, it briefly described an
overview of meditation and biomarkers of oxidative
stress. Then the last chapter focused on publications
corresponding to oxidative status affected by
meditation and meditation-based techniques. A
literature search was conducted using MEDLINE/
Pubmed and the references of received articles. The
search included articles published in English up to
December 2009, using MeSH tool. Searched terms
included, meditation, mind body therapy, oxidative
stress, free radicals, reactive species, oxidants and
antioxidants in various combinations.
Meditation and its classification in biomedical
research
Meditation, an ancient spiritual practice, is a
mind-body technique that helps people in balancing
mental, physical as well as emotional prospects which
can be practiced by people of any religion or any
culture. In terms of history, no one really can specify
when meditation originated but it is firstly described in
texts about several thousand years B.C(10). In general,
there are two main types of meditation; concentration
meditation and mindfulness meditation. The first one
involves direct attention on one focus in order to
develop deep state of concentration. The latter one is
J Med Assoc Thai Vol. 93 Suppl. 6 2010 S243
not to focus but rather to observe mind or body
perception moment to moment with non-judgment
awareness. Finally, the wisdom to comprehend the true
nature; impermanence (Anicca), suffering (Dukkha) and
non-selfhood (Anatta), will be developed(11). Most of
meditation techniques are employed in Asian countries
and took several thousand years to spread to West.
Nowadays, meditation is becoming popular in western
countries. Articles of Time magazine have revealed
meditation as a smart practice in daily life for American
people(12) and in military troops(13). Once Western
physicians have tried, they have started to understand
the role of mind on health and disease. Meditation
health care center has been constructed in school of
medicine such as in University of Massachusetts
Medical School (The Center for Mindfulness in
Medicine), United States of America. Then, this kind of
center has been created in other countries, leading into
widespread medical investigations.
In the present biomedical researches, Ospina
et al(14) broadly divided meditation into five categories;
mantra meditation, mindfulness meditation, yoga, Tai
Chi and Qigong. First, mantra meditation is composed
of transcendental meditation (TM), relaxation response
and clinically standardized meditation. They share
common characteristics to develop deep concentration
by repeating silently or aloud the mantra (a word or
phrase). This is so-called concentration meditation of
Buddhist meditation. Second, mindfulness meditation
is composed of vipassana meditation, Zen meditation,
mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) and
mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT). The
hallmark of this category is to cultivate mindfulness
and wisdom of oneself as previously described. Third,
yoga is an ancient Indian system that comprises basic
forms of postural movement, meditation, breathing
technique and relaxation(15). Another method named
Sudarshan Kriya (SK) is also included in yoga,
emphasizing on breathing pattern. Fourth, Tai Chi is
the Chinese art for individual health and well being. It
involves gentle body movement in continuous
sequence, breathing patterns and mental
concentration(16,17). Fifth, Qigong is quite similar to Tai
Chi in terms of body movement but relates to breathing
attention with meditation basis. However, Qigong
emphasizes the concept of Qi flow (flow of internal
vital energy) as well(14,18). Additionally, diaphragmatic
breathing (DB) exercise has been categorized in part of
mediation too. The technique is to concentrate on
inhalation and exhalation. Deep breathing is inhaled
through nose into lung by the diaphragm (using
abdominal muscles), not by the rib cage expansion.
Exhalation is pursed to the lip. This method is generally
incorporated in yoga and many types of meditation.
The last four methods contribute similar concept of
body movement with clear and calm state of meditation.
Hence, they could be included into meditation-based
technique/movement or meditative movement. To
summarize, meditation in area of biomedical study
actually can be divided into three broad categories;
concentration meditation, mindfulness meditation and
meditation-based techniques.
The beneficial effects of meditation and
meditative movement on physical body have been
revealed. In healthy people, physiological changes are
concerned with reduction of heart rate, blood pressure,
respiratory rate(19-21), metabolic rate(22,23) and stress
hormones(24-26). As well, meditation enhances
parasympathetic nervous system(27), cerebral blood
flow(28), cerebral function of attention areas(29,30), and
release of dopamine and serotonin(31,32). Additionally,
clinical studies have illustrated its therapeutic effects
in many pathological diseases when used in
combination with conventional treatment such as
cancer(4,33,34), cardiovascular diseases(35-37), diabetes
mellitus(5,38), hypertension(6,39) and chronic pain(40).
Nonetheless, cellular and molecular mechanisms still
have to be elucidated.
Biomarkers of oxidative stress, oxidants and
antioxidant system
Oxidative stress refers to a serious imbalance
between oxidant production and antioxidant
defenses(41) for which the generation of oxidizing
substances is beyond the detoxifying capacity(42),
resulting in oxidative damage of target molecules such
as DNA, protein and lipid structures(43) (Fig. 1). It has
been reported to be involved in the pathogenesis of
many diseases, e.g, cancer, cardiovascular disease,
diabetes mellitus, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s
disease(8,9). This part concerns only bioindicators of
oxidants and antioxidants. The detailed description of
biochemistry is well beyond the scope of this review.
Oxidant measurement as a biomarker of oxidative
status
Byproducts of oxidation reaction are regularly
measured as indicators of oxidative stress since free
radicals themselves are unstable. Reactive species (RS)
or oxidants or free radicals are defined as molecules
comprising unpaired electron (s) in atomic or molecular
orbitals(44). The common groups of RS are reactive
S244 J Med Assoc Thai Vol. 93 Suppl. 6 2010
oxygen species or ROS (e.g, superoxide radicals,
hydroxyl radicals and hydrogen peroxide), and reactive
nitrogen species or RNS (e.g, nitric oxide radicals,
nitrogen dioxide radicals and nitrous acid). In normal
circumstances, free radicals are endogenously
generated in the body from mitochondrial electron
transport, immune response, detoxification and protein
folding(45). Also, exposure to pollutants, chemicals,
radiation, and physical and mental stresses accelerates
production of RS(46). To reach ground state, ROS and
RNS rapidly donate unpaired electrons to other
biological molecules as nucleic acids, lipids and
proteins. Consequently, it is difficult to directly
quantify free radicals because of their high reactivity
and short half-life. Instead, byproducts formed during
oxidation are evaluated because they are more stable.
ROS, especially hydroxyl radicals, can react with all
components of DNA. The common indicators of DNA
oxidation are 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine and the DNA
damage(47). Lipids are also sensitive cellular targets of
free radicals. Investigation of lipid peroxidation is
the oldest determination of oxidative stress.
Malondialdehyde (MDA), F2-isoprostanes and 4-
hydroxy-2-nonenal (4-HNE) are extensively detected
as parameters of lipid peroxidation(44). Reaction of MDA
and thiobarbituric acid generates thiobarbituric acid
reactive substances (TBARS) which is also applied
for MDA evaluation. However, analysis by
Fig. 1 Oxidative stress, biomarkers (underline) and pathogenesis involvement. Generation of reactive species (RS) is
derived from both endogenous and exogenous sources. However, antioxidant system also has been evolved to
balance oxidants. Overproduction of RS causes oxidative damage of DNA, lipid and protein structures indicated by
byproducts. This damage has been reported to involve in pathogenesis of many diseases. CAT, catalase; GPX,
glutathione peroxidase; GR, glutathione reductase; GSH, reduced glutathione; GSSG, oxidized glutathione; SOD,
superoxide dismutase; UPE, ultraweak photon emission
J Med Assoc Thai Vol. 93 Suppl. 6 2010 S245
chromatography is increasingly analyzed and more
reliable(48). Protein oxidation is another process of
oxidative damage. Basically, free radicals oxidize amino
acids, then, create carbonyls and amino acid
modification as biomarkers of protein oxidation(42). In
terms of RNS, nitric oxide (NO) is a major RNS that has
been considered as important vasodilator and
neutralizer of superoxide radical. However, NO also
mediates inflammation and cytotoxic substances.
Therefore, RS has been clarified both useful and harmful
effects. Overproduction of RS finally originates the
destruction of biomolecules, so-called oxidative
damage. For this reasons, human body needs the other
mechanism to antagonize RS productions, known as
the antioxidant system (Fig. 1).
Antioxidant measurement as a biomarker of
oxidative status
The antioxidant system is composed of
antioxidant enzymes as well as endogenous
antioxidants (non-enzyme) and antioxidative enzymes.
Antioxidant or free radical scavengers are signified as
any substance that delays, prevents or removes
oxidative damage to a target molecule(41). For
endogenous antioxidants, the most importance is
glutathione or reduced glutathione (GSH)(49). Total
glutathione includes both GSH and oxidized glutathione
(GSSG). About ninety eight percent of total glutathione
is GSH (g-glutamyl-cysteinylglycine). It is responsible
for many crucial biological processes, especially
detoxification by either conjugation or acting as a
powerful reducing agent. In terms of conjugation, GSH
combines with electrophiles into glutathione conjugate
for further elimination. This reaction is catalyzed by
glutathione S-transferase (GST)(50). Furthermore, GSH
detoxifies hydrogen peroxide and lipid peroxides by
catalytic action of glutathione peroxidase (GPX), and
form GSSG (so-called oxidized glutathione).
Subsequently, reactivity of those RS is abolished or
lessened. After that, GSSG is converted back to GSH
by glutathione reductase (GR) to maintain redox
homeostasis(49). Hence, these enzymes are determined
as biomarkers of antioxidant enzymes. GSH and GSSG
levels also are validated as biomarkers of antioxidant
and oxidative stress, respectively (Fig. 1). As well, GSH/
GSSG ratio is generally calculated to determine oxidative
status However, quantification of both GSH and GSSG
has to be concerned for artifacts(51). Additionally,
carotenoid, vitamin E and vitamin C are also considered
free radical scavengers. Nonetheless, they must be in
active forms, and the major source is exogenous from
diet. In addition to GST, GPX and GR, the other essential
antioxidant enzymes include superoxide dismutase
(SOD) and catalase (CAT) (45). SOD catalyzes
conversion of superoxide radical to hydrogen peroxide
(lesser reactivity) while CAT converts hydrogen
peroxide into non-oxidant molecules.
Non-invasive measurement of oxidative stress
Although many biomarkers are provided to
measure oxidative status, most of them require the
destruction of cell or tissues to derive target specimens.
Measurement of ultraweak photon emission (UPE) has
been developed to quantify oxidative stress in a noninvasive
way(52,53). Under normal conditions, the human
body spontaneously emits biophoton or ultraweak light
but cannot be seen by the naked eye or optical
detectors. UPE is directly correlated with the
consumption of molecular oxygen. Each emitted
spectrum is referred to a different oxygen-dependent
reaction, e.g, lipid and protein peroxidation(53,54). As a
result, measurement of UPE has been implicated in ROS
production and oxidative stress(55).
To sum up, the human body regularly initiates
free radicals from both endogenous and exogenous
sources. Although RS is involved in many physiological
phenomena, it also can damage target biomolecules.
Thus, the human body has evolved an antioxidant
system to balance the reactivity of free radicals.
Oxidative status can be estimated via both invasive
and non-invasive techniques. Oxidative stress occurs
when oxidant production is over the capability of
antioxidant mechanisms. It is associated with the
pathogenesis of many fatal diseases. Therefore, if any
intervention can endogenously reduce oxidative
damage or facilitate antioxidant mechanisms, that
method would be very worthwhile.
Modulation effects of meditation and meditation-based
techniques on oxidative stress
In the past several decades, the studies of
meditation and meditation-based techniques have been
increasingly interested. The content of this article was
arranged following the duration of intervention: acute,
short term and long term effects of meditation.
Acute effects of meditation and meditation-based
techniques on oxidative status
According to moment published data, Wijk
and coworkers(56) presented the shortest time (ten
minutes) of meditation affecting oxidative stress (Table
1). They were the first group to measure oxidative status
S246 J Med Assoc Thai Vol. 93 Suppl. 6 2010
Study Intervention group/(n) Comparison Result/(evidence suggestion)
Wijk et al, ZM (1) Pre/during/post-meditation Decreased hand UPE for 46 % after 10 min meditating
(2005)(56) Phi-damped breathing (2) Pre/during/post-meditation NSD
TM (1) Pre/during/post-meditation NSD
TM + breathing (1) Pre/during/post-meditation Decreased forehead and hand UPE for 5 % after 10
(Subjects had experience at (each period was 10 min) min meditating and continued reduction along 10
least 15 years). min of post-meditation
(Reduction of oxidative stress by ZM and TM+breathing)
Sharma et al SK (10) 45 min/0 min of SK NSD
(2003)(57) (Subjects carried out SK 65 min/0 min of SK Significantly increased SOD activity
practice for 5 months). (Improvement of antioxidant system)
Kim et al ZM (20) 70 min/0 min of Zen NSD (serum MDA and NO)
(2005)(58) (Subjects had experience at meditation
least 4 years).
Martarelli et al DB (8): DB for 1 hour DB/controls at 0 min, 90 At 8 and 24 hours, DB group significantly increased
(2009)(59) after exercise-induced min, 8 hours and 24 biological antioxidant potential and decreased
oxidative stress hours after exercise d-reactive oxygen metabolites more than controls.
Controls (8): Sitting quietly (Alleviation of oxidative stress by DB)
for 1 hour after exercise
DB, diaphragmatic breathing; min, minute; NO, nitric oxide; MDA, malondialdehyde; NSD, no significant difference, SK, Sudarshan Kriya; SOD, superoxide
dismutase; TM, transcendental meditation; UPE, ultraweak photon emission; ZM, Zen meditation
Table 1. Acute effect of meditation and meditation-based techniques on oxidative status
J Med Assoc Thai Vol. 93 Suppl. 6 2010 S247
in meditators by UPE. Five subjects were long term
practitioners with different meditation types. The
emission of biophoton was traced from hand and/or
head for three periods, ten minutes each; before, during
and after meditation. After ten minutes of Zen
meditation, forehead UPE was quite the same whereas
hand UPE declined up to 46%. The decrease also
continued along ten minutes of post-meditation period.
In contrast, two subjects of breathing technique and
one TM practitioner had no obvious alteration of UPE.
One modified TM (TM with breathing combination)
showed a slight reduction of hand and forehead UPE
(about 5%) after 10 minutes of meditation period (Table
1). Thus, data suggested that meditation could
influence human biophoton emission. However, it
should be further clarified in larger numbers. In 2003,
Sharma et al(57) examined acute effects of SK, yoga
branch, on antioxidant system. Firstly, subjects had
been trained SK for 5 months (n = 10). Then, total
glutathione, CAT and SOD were analyzed at 45 and 65
minutes of SK performance, and compared with 0
minute. None of the parameters indicated significant
alteration at 45 minutes. After 65 minutes, total
glutathione seemed to elevate but was not statistically
significant, whereas, SOD activity exhibited a significant
increase. Then, the researchers proposed that SK could
produce better status of antioxidants. However, the
results should be confirmed in a bigger sample size. In
addition, Kim and coworkers studied acute effects of
Zen meditation in long term practitioners (over 4 years
of experience), at 70 minutes against a 0 minute
baseline(58). Nevertheless, no significant alteration was
found (by assessing lipid peroxidation and NO) as
shown in Table 1. This data was controversy with Wijk
et al, (2005). Nevertheless, other oxidative parameters
should be confirmed too. In addition to direct influence
on oxidative status, exhaustive exercise was also
employed to induce oxidative stress. DB, a breathing
part of many meditation forms, was declared to
encourage the antioxidant system and ease oxidative
stress induced by exhaustive exercise(59). After
exercising, 8 DB practitioners performed DB for one
hour while eight control subjects sat in quiet and
comparable environments. At 8 and 24 hours after
exercise, DB group demonstrated decline of d-reactive
oxygen metabolites and elevation of biological
antioxidant potential. In the meantime, oxidative stress
in control group stayed still along 24 hours after exercise
(Table 1). Thus, lessening of oxidative stress by DB
was assumed.
Short term effects of meditation and meditation-based
techniques on oxidative status
Yadav and coworkers(60) determined lipid
peroxidation of 104 healthy subjects who entered a
yoga-based lifestyle modification program for nine days.
The program included yoga with nutritional and stress
management. At day ten, serum TBARS was
significantly decreased when compared with the control
before starting the course (Table 2). Sample size and
individual baseline comparing were strength of this
study. Nevertheless, other oxidative stress markers
should be confirmed aside from serum TBARS. Also,
alleviation of oxidative stress might have occurred from
other factors as nutritional and stress management.
The rest of publications investigated short term effects
of meditation in periods of months. Sharma et al(57)
clarified that five months of SK practice (n = 10)
significantly raised total glutathione, CAT and SOD,
compared with the control group (n = 14). The baseline
levels of CAT and SOD were initially verified to be
comparable in both groups. All subjects were in similar
living conditions at a Police Training College which
was benefit of this study but the sample size should be
enlarged. Afterward, Sinha et al(61) investigated six
months of yoga practice in 30 Indian Navies in similar
habits and environments. Compared to individual
baseline, the six-month yoga practitioners significantly
elevated blood GSH, GSH/GSSG ratio and total
antioxidant status as shown in Table 2. In contrast,
control group (routine training for 6 months) declined
total antioxidant status and increased GR activity. This
could be explained by induction of oxidative stress by
routine physical training. Hence, yoga was suggested
to ease oxidative stress and improve antioxidant system.
Tai Chi, the Chinese martial art exercise, was also
inspected. Recently, Goon and colleagues explored
oxidative stress profiles after Tai Chi training for 0, 6
and 12 months(62). Interestingly, at six months, DNA
damage was elevated and GPX activity increased (n =
25). The outcomes were considered as a mild level of
exercise-induced oxidative stress with compensation
of GPX activity. Nevertheless, at 12 months, Tai Chi
participants (n = 15) presented a significant decrease
of plasma MDA and increase of SOD activity (Table 2).
In this data, various parameters were determined which
advantaged correct interpretation.
Long term effects of meditation and meditative-based
techniques on oxidative status
Studies of the long term effects of meditation
on oxidative status have been conducted in meditators
S248 J Med Assoc Thai Vol. 93 Suppl. 6 2010
Study Intervention group/(n) Comparison Result/(evidence suggestion)
Yadav et al Yoga (104) 9 days/own baseline Significantly decreased serum TBARS
(2005)(60) (Subjects entered 9 days-yoga (Reduction of oxidative stress)
Program).
Sharma et al SK (10): SK training for 5-month SK/controls at 5 months Significantly increased total glutathione
(2003)(57) Controls (14): Routine training, no SK and activity of SOD and CAT in SK
(Subjects were comparable from Police (Improvement of antioxidant system)
Training College and age-matched).
Sinha et al Yoga (30): Routine training with SK/own baseline Significantly increased GSH, GSH/GSSG
(2007)(61) yoga practice for 6 months at 6 months ratio and total antioxidant status
Controls (21): Routine training Controls/own baseline Significantly decreased total antioxidant
without Yoga at 6 months status and increased GR activity
(Both groups were male from Indian (Stimulation of antioxidant system and alleviation of stress
Navies and age-matched). training by yoga)
Goon et al Tai Chi (25) 6 months/own baseline Significantly increased DNA damage and
(2009)(62) (Sedentary healthy volunteers (n =25) GPX activity (induction of oxidative stress)
with age over 45 years). 12 months/own baseline Significantly decreased plasma MDA and
(n =15) increased SOD activity (oxidative stress
reduction and antioxidant improvement)
CAT, catalase; DNA, deoxyribonucleic acid; GPX, glutathione peroxidase; GR, glutathione reductase; GSH, reduced glutathione, GSSG, oxidized glutathione;
MDA, malondialdehyde; SK, Sudarshan Kriya; SOD, superoxide dismutase; TBARS, thiobarbituric acid reactive substance
Table 2. Short term effect of meditation and meditation-based techniques on oxidative status
J Med Assoc Thai Vol. 93 Suppl. 6 2010 S249
with experience of more than one year (Table 3). In
2008, Sharma and coworkers(63) compared antioxidant
systems of long term practitioners (one hour a day, at
least one year) of SK with matched control (n = 42). SK
practitioners had higher levels of glutathione, GPX and
SOD activities than controls, implying better capacities
to neutralize oxidants in SK group. Furthermore, Sharma
et al firstly reported a profile of gene expression in long
term practice of meditative-based technique. Expression
of the GST gene in SK was significantly amplified,
correlating with elevation of GSH levels. Therefore, SK
practice might help to improve the capability of
detoxification. Expression of GPX, CAT and SOD genes
of SK tended to elevate as well, but insignificantly.
Moreover, Kim et al(58) verified long term effect of Zen
meditation (at least 4-year experience) on oxidative
stress. Subjects of Zen and control group were healthy
and comparable (20 each). Zen practitioners (two to
three days per week at least four years) demonstrated a
significant diminution of serum MDA and elevation of
serum NO over the control group. Thus, they proposed
alleviation of oxidative stress by Zen meditation. In
addition to Zen meditation, TM was extensively
investigated in biomedical research of meditation (Table
3). Schneider et al(64) evaluated lipid peroxides in 20
long term TM practitioners (more than 16.5 years of
experience), and in 20 sedentary controls who did not
perform any stress management. Plasma TBARS of the
meditation group was significantly lesser than the
control. Both groups were comparable in age, gender
and education. Furthermore, Wijk and colleagues
examined the anatomical characterization of UPE in ten
long term TM practitioners, who meditated 20 minutes,
twice a day for more than ten years (Table 3)(65). Both
study and control participants had verified UPE in 12
anatomical locations of the anterior torso (stomach,
heart, right and left abdomen), head (forehead, throat,
right and left cheeks) and hand (palms and hands on
both left and right sides). Compared to the control
group, TM practitioners exhibited a significant
decrement of UPE in the area of the stomach, heart,
throat, right cheek, forehead and left dorsal hand. Two
subjects with regular meditation demonstrated the
lowest UPE. Therefore, the authors proposed that
persistent meditation could diminish UPE. In order to
support this hypothesis, the same group characterized
UPE in a bigger sample size of TM practitioners (n =
20). In addition, various techniques of long term
meditation were elucidated(66). Similar to previous
reports, long term TM practitioners demonstrated a
significant diminution of UPE in the locations of the
stomach, heart, throat, right cheek, right and left
abdomen (Table 3). The average overall reduction of
photon emission in TM practitioners was 27% lower
than the control group. In the mean time, 20 long term
practitioners of other meditation techniques (OMT)
were also evaluated for photon emission. OMT included
three Taoists, three Zen meditators, four Christian
meditators (praying and contemplation) and ten yoga
participants. Compared to control subjects, UPE of
OMT was significantly decreased at the throat area
with an average lessening of 17%. Hence, this study
supported the hypothesis that long term practice of
meditation lowers UPE, implying ROS dwelling in a living
system. Hence, these results were in concert with
modulation effects of meditation on oxidative stress
measured by invasive methods.
Miscellaneous findings
In addition to the above articles, some
miscellaneous findings were incorporated in this
paragraph. Bhattacharya and colleagues(67) reported
that yogic breathing technique significantly lessened
free radicals and promoted SOD levels (n = 30) when
compared to control subjects. However, they did not
mention how long practitioners were trained. As well,
the full text was unattainable. One article from China
mentioned that Qigong could facilitate antioxidant
activity but did not reveal the markers used to determine
this(68). Method and duration of experiment were not
clearly explained as well (only the abstract was
provided). In addition to studying healthy people,
Mahapure and coworkers investigated yoga effects
on oxidative status in diabetic patients(69). Compared
with control diabetics (anti-diabetic therapy alone),
diabetics who also performed yoga had significantly
higher levels of SOD after training, suggesting
therapeutic assistance in diabetic patients. Additionally,
one group of American scientists studied effects of
meditation in cell culture. Oxidative stress, rate of cell
death and proliferation were assessed before and after
biofield therapy (supraphysical energy delivered from
meditative masters who had long experience in healing
patients). Nonetheless, most investigations had no
significant alteration in cell cultures(70-72). It might be
possible that therapeutic effects require coordination
of different systems in vivo.
Conclusion and future direction
According to MEDLINE/Pubmed data up to
December 2009, studies of meditation and meditationbased
techniques on oxidative stress have been
S250 J Med Assoc Thai Vol. 93 Suppl. 6 2010
Study Intervention group/(n) Comparison Result/(evidence suggestion)
Sharma et al SK (42): Long term practice, at least 1 year, SK/controls Significantly increased level of total
(2008)(63) 1 hour/day glutathione, and activity of GPX and SOD
Controls (42): Not performed any exercise and Significantly elevated GST gene expression
stress management. (Improvement of antioxidant system)
(Both groups were age, gender, BMI and
socioeconomic-matched).
Kim et al ZM (20): Long term practice, at least 4 year, ZM/controls Significantly decreased serum MDA and
(2005)(58) 2-3 day/week, 1 hour/day increased NO
Controls (20): Not performed any exercise (Reduction of oxidative stress)
and stress management.
(Both groups were comparable in age, gender,
BMI, education and diet).
Wijk et al TM (10): Long term practice, at least 10 years, TM/controls Significantly decreased UPE on area of
(2006)(65) twice a day, 20 min/time stomach, heart, throat, right cheek,
Controls (10): Without experience using any forehead and left dorsal hand
meditation form. (Reduction of oxidative stress)
(Both groups were age and gender-matched, and
did not intake any supplement).
Wijk et al TM (20): Long term practitioners TM/controls Significantly decreased UPE on area of
(2008)(66) OMT (20): Long term practitioners of Taoist stomach, heart, throat, right cheek, right and
meditation (3), Zen meditation (3), Christian left abdomen (overall reduction was 27%)
meditation (3) and yoga (10) (Improvement of antioxidant system)
Controls (20): Without experience using any OMT/controls Significantly decreased UPE on area of throat
meditation form (overall reduction was 17%)
(Both groups were age, gender and BMI-matched, (Improvement of antioxidant system)
and free of medication).
Schneider et al TM (18): Long term practice, at least 16.5 years TM/controls Significantly decreased plasma TBARS
(1998)(64) Controls (10): Not performed any stress (Reduction of oxidative stress)
management
(Both groups were comparable in age, gender and
education).
BMI; body mass index, GPX, glutathione peroxidase; GST, glutathione S-transferase; MDA, malondialdehyde; NO, nitric oxide; OMT, other meditation types;
Sudarshan Kriya; SOD, superoxide dismutase; TBARS, thiobarbituric acid reactive substances; TM, transcendental meditation; UPE, ultraweak photon emission;
ZM, Zen meditation
Table 3. Long term effect of meditation and meditation-based techniques on oxidative status
J Med Assoc Thai Vol. 93 Suppl. 6 2010 S251
growing in interest. Long term TM and Zen meditation
have been clarified to reduced oxidative stress, indicated
from a decline of MDA level and UPE. Yoga and SK
have been clarified to enhance both levels of
endogenous antioxidants (glutathione) and activity of
antioxidant enzymes; CAT, SOD, GPX and GR. Twelve
months of Tai Chi practice also have been showed to
promote SOD activity and lessen lipid peroxidation.
DB after exhaustive exercise has facilitated attenuation
of exercise-induced oxidative stress faster than the
control. Therefore, the results suggest reduction of
oxidative stress and improvement of the antioxidant
system by meditation in various modalities. However,
future research should signify cellular and molecular
mechanisms. Additionally, inclusion criteria,
comparable subjects, study design, reliability of
measurement and sample size should be put higher
awareness.
References
1. Barnes PM, Bloom B, Nahin RL. Complementary
and alternative medicine use among adults and
children: United States, 2007. Natl Health Stat Report
2008; 1-23.
2. Wolsko PM, Eisenberg DM, Davis RB, Phillips RS.
Use of mind-body medical therapies. J Gen Intern
Med 2004; 19: 43-50.
3. Lindberg DA. Integrative review of research related
to meditation, spirituality, and the elderly.
Geriatr Nurs 2005; 26: 372-7.
4. Biegler KA, Chaoul MA, Cohen L. Cancer, cognitive
impairment, and meditation. Acta Oncol 2009;
48: 18-26.
5. Rosenzweig S, Reibel DK, Greeson JM, Edman JS,
Jasser SA, McMearty KD, et al. Mindfulnessbased
stress reduction is associated with improved
glycemic control in type 2 diabetes mellitus: a pilot
study. Altern Ther Health Med 2007; 13: 36-8.
6. Manikonda JP, Stork S, Togel S, Lobmuller A,
Grunberg I, Bedel S, et al. Contemplative meditation
reduces ambulatory blood pressure and
stress-induced hypertension: a randomized pilot
trial. J Hum Hypertens 2008; 22: 138-40.
7. Ospina MB, Bond K, Karkhaneh M, Buscemi N,
Dryden DM, Barnes V, et al. Clinical trials of meditation
practices in health care: characteristics and
quality. J Altern Complement Med 2008; 14: 1199-
213.
8. Grune T, Berger MM. Markers of oxidative stress
in ICU clinical settings: present and future. Curr
Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2007; 10: 712-7.
9. Valko M, Leibfritz D, Moncol J, Cronin MT, Mazur
M, Telser J. Free radicals and antioxidants in normal
physiological functions and human disease.
Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2007; 39: 44-84.
10. Natural-health-and-healing.com [homepage on the
Internet]. History and types of meditation. 2005
[cited 2010 Jan 5]. Available from: http://
www.natural-health-and-healing.com/history-andtypes-
of-meditation.html
11. Bhikkhu B. Handbook for mankind. Bangkok: Office
of National Buddhism Press; 1956.
12. Cullen LT. How to get smarter, one breath at a time.
Time Inc [homepage on the Internet]. 2006 Jan 10
[cited 2010 Jan 5]. Available from: http://
www.time.com/time/magazine/article/
0,9171,1147167,00.html
13. Rochman B. Samurai mind training for modern
American warriors. Time Inc [homepage on the
Internet]. 2009 Sep 6 [cited 2010 Jan 5]. Available
from: http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/
0,8599,1920753,00.html
14. Ospina MB, Bond K, Karkhaneh M, Tjosvold L,
Vandermeer B, Liang Y, et al. Meditation practices
for health: state of the research. Evid Rep Technol
Assess (Full Rep) 2007; 1-263.
15. Bushell WC. Longevity: potential life span and
health span enhancement through practice of the
basic yoga meditation regimen. Ann N Y Acad Sci
2009; 1172: 20-7.
16. Posadzki P, Jacques S. Tai chi and meditation: A
conceptual (re)synthesis? J Holist Nurs 2009; 27:
103-14.
17. Rogers CE, Larkey LK, Keller C. A review of clinical
trials of tai chi and qigong in older adults. West
J Nurs Res 2009; 31: 245-79.
18. Birdee GS, Wayne PM, Davis RB, Phillips RS, Yeh
GY. T’ai chi and qigong for health: patterns of use
in the United States. J Altern Complement Med
2009; 15: 969-73.
19. Nidich SI, Rainforth MV, Haaga DA, Hagelin J,
Salerno JW, Travis F, et al. A randomized controlled
trial on effects of the Transcendental Meditation
program on blood pressure, psychological distress,
and coping in young adults. Am J Hypertens
2009; 22: 1326-31.
20. Danucalov MA, Simoes RS, Kozasa EH, Leite JR.
Cardiorespiratory and metabolic changes during
yoga sessions: the effects of respiratory exercises
and meditation practices. Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedback
2008; 33: 77-81.
21. Sudsuang R, Chentanez V,
Comentários
Postar um comentário